BHAKTI
MOVEMENT OF MAHARASHTRA AND MARATHA NATIONALISM
(Nationalism, Nation
building and the lives of Saints)
Key
words- identity, geographical, medieval, Bhakti,
nationalism, blending, caste.
Abstract- Geographically located at the meeting
point of the North India and South India, the people of Maharashtra have their
own distinct identity. Medieval Bhakti movement had played an important role in
giving shape to this distinct identity to Marathi speaking people.
Gyaneshwara (13th century) who
is considered as a pioneer of Medieval Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra says,
“What should I say in
praise of Marathi, it is sweeter than the nectar”
With the progress of the Bhakti Movement
from 13th century to 17th century, the pride of Marathi
is also begun to blend with the pride of being Hindu. This ultimately
culminated into the ideology of ‘Maharashtra Dharma’ of Ramadasa, who is
considered as the guru of Shivaji, the founder of Maratha kingdom, which later
turned into an empire. Shivaji called his kingdom as ‘Swarjya’ (our own kingdom). And ‘Sriche Rajya’(God’s Kingdom)
The traces of blending of the
spirituality with the temporal progress is visible in the composition of the Gynaeshwara,
Eknath and Tukaram. However with Ramdasa it achieved more clear assertion .
The proposed paper is an attempt to trace
this growth of aggressive assertion of ‘Maratha identity’ through the writings
of the Bhakti saints from Gyaneshwara to Ramdasa. This aggressive assertion of Maratha identity
is cashed upon by many political parties like Shiv Sena and BJP and pressure groups like RSS and Maratha Mahasangha..
One have to just go around in the towns of Maharashtra and see how the legacy
of Ramdasa and Shivaji is used to organize and channelize the energy of the
youth. However, it has good and bad effect both! It does inculcate good values
and respect for tradition, but sometimes it spirals into fanaticism leading to
the incidents like vandalism of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Spread of Bhakti
movement in Maharashtra and growth of Maratha Nationalism during medieval
period is an intricate issue. Religion was never as isolated matter but was interconnected
with political, socio-economic and cultural conditions. In this context, this
paper will explore the following issues involved;
1.
Geographical background of Maharashtra.
2.
Coming of Bhakti Movement.
3.
Assertion of Marathi pride.
4.
Blending of language and religion.
5.
Articulation of injustice.
6.
Inspiring dream.
7.
Unification of the Marathas.
8.
Maratha Nationalism, blending of
religion and politics.
9.
Hindu unity, but not against Islam.
10.
Maratha Nationalism, a tricky legacy.
1.Geographical
background of Maharashtra- Maharashtra is
divided into many distinct geographical units like the ranges of Satpura and Sahyandri mountains in Western Maharashtra, the coastal belt of Konkan and Table
land of Vidarbha.
Geographical features of any region plays
an important role in shaping the character of the people and subsequently it’s
history. Maharashtra is not blessed with ample quantity of plain fertile land
and lot of land is mountainous and barren. Historically, the life of the people
of Maharashtra was full of struggle for survival. The struggle becoming the
part of daily life, the general character traits of an average Maharashtrian
shows qualities like tenacity, simplicity and frugality.
Geographical features also helped the Maharashtrians
to resist the invasions. The rule of Muslim kingdoms started in Maharashtra in
the 14th century, however the administrative machinery of the
Sulatans of Bijapur and Ahmadnagar and Mughals did not penetrate deeper in the
villages of the Maharashtra. The sultans of the Deccan had to rule with the
help of the local Maratha chief. Thus the spirit of independence always remained
alive among the Maharashtrians.
These mountains were very effectively used
by Shivaji and his followers to protect the small Maratha kingdom against the
aggression of the mighty Mughals.
2.Coming
of Bhakti Movement- Medieval Bhakti movement, which
had brought many changes in the lives of the Hindus during medieval period also
had a profound effect on the lives of the Maharashtrian people. Tracing the root of Bhakti movement is
difficult, but in Maharashtra, Gyaneshwara
(13th -14th century) is considered as a pioneer of
the medieval Bhakti movement. He made Marathi commentary on the Bhagavad Gita known as Gyaneshwari and gave a solid
philosophical foundation to the movement in Maharashtra. Bhakti saints did not
advise the people to renounce the world, but tried to make synthesis between
spiritual and temporal progress. Gyaneshawara
says,
“ Jayche Ahik dhad Nahi, Tayache
paratr pushi kai”(Pendse p.76)
(If somebody’s temporal
progress is not good, what to say about his spiritual progress) Gyneshwara’s
making commentary on ‘ Bhagavad Gita’
itself symbolizes that he wanted to give message of achieving proper synthesis
between spiritual and temporal progress. In Bhagavad
Gita we find messages that are
suitable to the people of different temperament. The author of Bhagavad Gita
had tried to achieve synthesis between Karma(action), Gyan(wisdom) and Bhakti(devotion).
Opening of spiritual-philosophical treasure of Bhagavad Gita to the common Marathi speaking population was a
revolutionary step. It had threatened the exclusive privilege of those who kept
the spiritual knowledge confined to the boundaries of Sanskrit. In terms of
poetic beauty, flight of imagination and philosophical depth, Gyneshwari stands unparallel in Marathi
literature. Urging Arjuna to fight against the tyranny, Krishna in Gyaneshwari
says,
“Sandi
he murkhpan, uthi ghe dhanushbans,sangrami he kavan karunya tuze”
(Sakhre p.44)
(Discard this
foolishness, pick up bow and arrow. How a kindness have generated in your heart
at this time when you are called upon to fight the war!)
Gyaneshwari
is full of ‘Vir
rasa’ 1and urges the people into righteous action, action
with the right consciousness and for the right purpose.
By setting trend of
writing in Marathi, Gyneshwara inspired
the generations of saints to write commentaries on Sanskrit scriptures.
Following his footsteps, Eknatha
(1533-1599 A.D.) wrote Marathi commentary on the eleventh chapter of Bhagavata and also ‘Bhavartha Ramayana’, the transcreation of the story of brave
Rama. The narration is full of
description of bravery of Rama, Lakshmana and Hanumana. During the narration,
Ekanatha repeatedly urges the people to unite for the purpose of liberating
Gods from the tyranny of Ravana. Here we see the symbolism of using epical
narration to describe the contemporary situations. Eknatha worked during the
period of Muslim rule, when life and religion of the Hindus was not safe. There
were incidents of destruction of temples and breaking of idols. Through
symbolism Ekanatha urges the people to unite and fight against the injustice
and liberate the Gods,
Eknatha repeatedly uses
a refrain in ‘Bhavartha Ramayana’, ‘Todavaya devachi Bandhvadi, Ubharavaya
Ramrajychi Gudhi’ which means ‘to
liberate the Gods and establish the just kingdom of Rama.’
Later Ramdasa(1608-1681
A.D.), says that one should maintain
proper balance between worldly life and spiritual progress. He writes,
“Adhi
pranpanch karava netka, mag sadave parmarth viveka” (Deshpande,
Part-V, p.440)
(One should do
householder’s duty with prudence and then one can achieve spiritual progress)
3.Assertion
of Marathi pride.-
We find confident
assertion of the pride of Marathi language in the composition of Gyaneshwara. He
writes,
“I shall choose such
beautiful diction of local language(Marathi) that it will easily win by its
sweetness, a wager with nectar. Its melodious words will outshine musical notes
and in their presence even fragrance will loose its sweetness” (Yardi p.94)
The articulation of
pride of Marathi language, that we see in the composition of Gyneshwara, finds
more aggressive assertion in the writings of Bhakti saints that followed.
Eknatah (16th century) says,
“Sanskrit
vani deve keli, Prakrit kay chorapasun ali” (Bahirat and
Bhalerao, p.198).
(If Sanskrit is made by
Gods. Then did Marathi sprang from the thieves?)
By making Marathi as a
language of compositions, the Bhakti saints had increased its prestige. It had
provoked literary creativity across the caste and gender and common masses
started articulating their grievances and aspirations. Kirtans2 and singing of devotional
songs in Marathi contributed towards creating more cohesive Mahartashtrian
society.
4.Blending
of language and religion-After the age of
Gyaneshwara(13th -14th century), rule of Muslim sultans
was established over Maharashtra. Muslims were the favored children of the
state. They were mostly soldiers and government servants. Most of them were
from outside like; Arabs, Turk, Irani, Afgani and converted Indian Muslims from
north India. They spoke different languages and not Marathi. As the masses of
Maharashtra, who were mostly Hindus, spoke Marathi and the ruling classes spoke
different languages, it further intensified the dichotomy between the ruling
and the ruled. No wonder that the pride of Marathi language and pride of being Hindu
got blended together and a new connotation came into existence called, ‘Maharashtra Dharma’, which literary
means ‘religion of the Maharashtrians.’
5.Articulation
of injustice-
As the followers of Islam were eager to spread to Islam and many Muslim
rulers making it a state practice, a need was felt to unite against the
tyranny. We find articulation of this need in the writings of Ramdasa, who
says,
“Maratha
tituka melvava, Apula Maharashtra Dharma vadvava” (Deshpande, Part II, p.138)
(All the Marathas
should unite and spread the Maharashtra Dharma)
The Hindus of
Maharashtra, whose sentiments were wounded due to religious persecution, could
not open their mouth out of fear of the state. However as we move from 15th
century to 17th century, the situation had undergone change. Ramdasa
is more fearless in narrating the atrocities committed by the invading armies
of the sultans. He writes,
“They do not allow us
to open our mouth. If we dare to speak, they will cut off out tongues. They cut
off our hands and feet, ears and noses and torture us in many ways”(Pangarkar
p.161)
The articulation of the incidents of invading
armies dishonoring and carrying away of women also found place in the writings
of Ramdasa, he writes,
“Many Gujjar women and
Brahmin women were polluted (raped)
Many of them were
deported to another country and sold.
Many of them died due
to torture”(Parlikar p.41)
During Medieval period,
there were attempts of spreading Islam and the Hindus faced lot of persecution.
Their temples were destroyed and
restrictions were imposed on their religious practices. During the same period Bhakti movement was
also spreading across the country. However, by and large the Bhakti saints had
maintained sullen aloofness and remained silent about the atrocities committed
against the Hindus. But at least two Bhakti saints of Maharashtra i.e. Eknatah
and Ramdasa had narrated the atrocities committed against the Hindus. Ramdasa
feels sad that many places of Hindu worship are now converted into mosque and Dargas,
“Earlier there were
many temples. Now the rulers are Muslims. There is a celebration of ‘Urs’ at many places now and Muslims
glorifies their own saints”(Gosawi p.19)
Many times Muslim rulers and soldiers
indulged in plunder. They demolished temples; idols were broken and thrown
away. Ramdasa narrates,
“One God is broken by a
tyrant. Another one was thrown in the water. And the other one was trampled
upon by them”( Gosawi p.19)
Due to different pressures some of the
Hindus were converting to Islam. This pained Ramdasa and he says,
“Brahmins have lost
their intellect. They had also discarded their sacred duties. Many of them had
started worshipping ‘Pirs’ and many
of them are embarrassing Islam”(Pangarkar p.553)
As there were incidents
of forcible conversion to Islam, Eknatha criticizes that. He says,
“Hindus and Musalman,
both were made by ‘Khuda’, by forcibly
converting the Hindus, you are going against the will of God” (Deshmukh, p.124)
6.Inspiring
dream- No wonder
that this kind of bold articulations in the writings of the Maratha saints
aroused the masses to think and dream about the kingdom where their life,
religion, property and women will be safe. The articulation of this dream we
find again in the poem of Ramdasa titled ‘Anandvanbhuvan’
means ‘the abode of happiness’. In this poem he writes,
“The evil minded
Aurangzeb has died and the Mlenchhas
are killed.
The religious places
which were destroyed are now rebuilt.” (Pangarkar p.585)
However it my be mentioned here that Ramdasa
died in 1681 A.D. and Aurangzeb, after 26 years
in 1707 A.D. But the dream put forward by Ramdasa was put into practice
by the spirited Marathas in the 18th century, when they demolished
the Mughal empire and established their domination over almost all over India.
But the empire built by the Marathas and the dream of ‘Anandvanbhuvan’ of Ramdasa, were they the same? The question is
difficult to answer. Life is too complex to be compartmentalized in straight
answers like yes or No. Sometimes the reality is strange than the dream!
Ramdasa’s place is
unique in the growth of Maratha nationalism during medieval period. He gave
lesson of manliness, bravery, diplomacy and patriotism to the people of
Maharashtra. He is considered as spiritual Guru of Shivaji. He put forward an
ideal of Saint-soldier in front of the people. Through his writings, he tried
to form the character of the youth along with good health. He built many
temples of God Hanumana along with gymnasium and started giving physical
training to the youth to build their physique. Similar kind of experiment of
creating saint-soldiers was carried out by Guru Gobind Singh in Punjab by
founding Khalsa.
7.Unification
of the Marathas- Caste system is one of the important
factor that had kept Hindu society divided for centuries together. About the
caste system, the message given by the Bhakti saints is not homogeneous. However
by and large they accepted equality in the domain of the religion. Gyaneshwara
says,
“Devotion only counts
and not caste” (Yardi p.236)
The same thinking
reflects in the compositions of the Bhakti saints of the Maharashtra. Though
the caste system was not eradicated, but it did reduce the hatred between the
higher castes and the lower castes. The saints tried to percolate the idea that
caste is an attribute of the body only and inside the cover of this body lays
our true self, which is everywhere and inside everyone. Gyaneshwara says,
“He
viswachi maze ghar, Asi vriti Jayachi sthir, Kimbahuna charachar, apan jahala”
(Sakhre p.564)
(The whole universe is
my home and I reside in all animate and inanimate beings)
As the hatred between
the caste was reduced, the collective identify as being a Maratha overlapped
the differences (may be for time being!). As a result when the Marathas spread
out from the Maharashtra in the 18th century it had people cutting
across the different castes starting from the Brahmins to the lower castes Mahars.3
They were collectively addressed as ‘the Marathas’. This had given some space
to the talented and enterprising people from the lower caste. Malharrao Holkar,
the founder of the royal dynasty of Indore was a Dhangar,4
the Sheppard by caste. But due to his capability he rose to a very high
position in the Maratha confederation and was respectfully called ‘Kaka’, i.e. paternal uncle, even by the
high caste Brahmin Peshwa5 i.e. prime minister of the
Maratha Empire.
The Bhakti movement by embracing
the people from different castes had provided platform or the people to air
their grievances. Chokha Mela (13th-14th century) the lower
caste saint asserts himself,
“Chokha
Donga, pari Bhav nohe donga” (Deshpande p.137)
(I may be from lower
caste, but my devotion is not inferior.)
8.Maratha
Nationalism, blending of religion and politics -
Gradually the wave of Bhakti engulfed the whole of Maharashtra from 13th
to 17th century. The unity that was formed under the saffron flag of
Bhakti enabled the Marathas to stand united as a nation, when their homeland
was invaded by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in A.D. 1682. Marathas fought valiantly
against the might of the Mughal Empire for twenty five years. They defended
their independence and Aurangzeb died as a broken hearted man in Maharashtra
without able to break the spirit of the Marathas. This stands in contrast with
the raids of Alauddin Khilji and Malik Kafur in the 13th and 14th
century, when Maharashtra was easily ran over by the invading armies. The
Maharashtrian society of 17th-18th century was more
cohesive, more proud of their religion and being Marathas. Apart from many
other factors, the Bhakti saints had also played an important role in achieving
this unity. By enriching the Marathi language, by providing the rallying points
in the form of deities like Vithoba at Pahandarpur6,
by popularizing Kirtana singing, the Bhakti saints unified the Marathas and
created sense of belonging. Shivaji called his kingdom as ‘Swarajya’ and ‘Sri che
Rajya’ which means ‘our own kingdom’ and ‘kingdom of God’. No wonder that
the Shivaji’s men resisted all the temptations offered by the Mughal Emperor
Aurangzeb and continued to fight for preserving the independence of the Maratha
kingdom in spite of all odds.
The idea of Nationalism propagated by the
Bhakti saints of Maharashtra and particularly by Ramdasa had vision limited to
Maharashtra only. Ramdasa himself was aware of it. He writes,
“It is difficult to
bring all the Hindus at one platform because they speak in different languages
and this prevent them from freely mingling with each other”.(Pangarkar p.167)
Later on in the 18th
century, when the Marathas established their domination over vast territory in
the North India, they could not adopt all India outlook. For them their ‘watan’ i.e. homeland remained
Maharashtra. With orientation towards Maharashtra, the people of North India
and Gujrat, where the Marathas established their domination, continued to look
upon the Marathas as outsiders.
During Medieval Bhakti Movement of
Maharashtra, Lord Vittala at
Phandarpur, who is considered as a child incarnation of lord Vishnu was the
main rallying point of the Hindus and Phandarpur was the main center of
pilgrimage. However, Ramdasa selected Rama, the warrior incarnation of lord
Vishnu as his object of veneration. He popularized the Bhakti of Rama and
Hanumana and narrated their exploits in his poetic composition, ‘Ramayana’. It is believed that during
the period of Shivaji, Sambhaji and Rajaram (A.D. 1630-1700), the copies of
Ramdasa’s Ramayana were distributed to the forts of the Marathas and its
readings were carried out.(Pangarkar p.253)
9.Hindu
unity, but not against Islam- However, the unity and aggression was only
to establish the rule of justice. Ramdasa, the staunch supporter of Hindu unity
also says that fighting will destroy all,
“There is only one
earth, same water. O brother! Why do you fight with each other? Everybody will
be destroyed due to this infighting” (Pendse p.385)
As Hinduism believes that different mode
of worship are nothing but different ways of reaching God. This philosophy also
reflects in the compositions of the Bhakti saints. Ramdasa, who is critical of
the forcible conversion to Islam, also makes a respectful reference to Muslim
Sufis and Fakirs, he says,
“We can achieve God by
becoming mendicant, idol worshippers as well as by becoming Sufi, Fakir and
Kalandar” (Deshpande, Vol.V, p.283).
The
liberal and all embarrassing attitude of the Bhakti movement also touched the
followers of Islam. There were some Muslims in Maharashtra like Hussain
Ambarkhan, who wrote on the Hindu themes.
10.Maratha
Nationalism, a tricky legacy- Collective sense of
shared history, language and culture creates an ideal for nationalism. Bhakti
saints of Maharashtra created a sense of belonging and unified the Marathas
cutting across the different castes. This unity was strengthened when faced
with a strong enemy like the Mughals. However, the roots of caste had gone so
deeper in our society that the saints had
by and large failed to find any permanent solution to this malady which plague
the Hindu society. The privileged upper caste by and large maintained a sullen
aloofness from the Bhakti movement. Similarly, the lower caste Shudras also could not find a
comfortable space under the umbrella of Bhakti movement. Bhakti saints failed
to take any radical steps against the unjustified caste discrimination. Even
many times they justified it by giving undue importance to the Brahmins. The
general message that the Bhakti saints
of Maharashtra gave to the lower castes that everybody is equal in the domain
of religion, but when it comes to maintain social order, everybody has to do
the duty assigned to his Varna. Emancipation of Shudra lies in serving upper three Varnas! For which they will be rewarded after the death of this
body. This kind of justification of exploitative nature of caste system cannot
be accepted by the rational mind. The lower caste Mahar Chokha Mela, who lived in the 14th century complained against
this injustice but remained within the fold of Hinduism, but Dr. Bhimrao
Ambedkar, who lived six centuries after him, decided to throw off the yoke and
renounced Hinduism along with many of his followers. This is a proof that
Maratha Nationalism had failed to unite all sections of the Maratha society
permanently. Hinduism with its catholic spirit and flexibility nullifies the
protest by embarrassing it. Buddha protested against the violence of the Vedic
religion and followers of Vedic religion reduced his opposition by adopting
Non-Violence and declaring Buddha as incarnation of Vishnu. Similarly, the
protest of Bhakti movement against the orthodox Hinduism was also nullified by
the Hinduism by reducing its own orthodoxy. However it must be mentioned that
Bhakti movement had brought lot of changes in the practices of Hinduism.
The strong distinct identity that the
people of Maharashtra carry in their mind also sometimes take the form of
aggression and intolerance towards the people belonging to other states in
India. There are incidents of some attack on the Hindi speaking people in
Maharashtra. However, here the economic factor also strengthens the divide. The
large number of Hindi speaking people migrating to other parts of the country
and snatching the jobs of the locals, leads to conflict and assertion of
regional pride adds fuel to the fire.
Concept of nationality also goes on
changing. During medieval period, the idea of Maratha Nationalism had inspired
and unified the generations. However, the idea of Nationality had undergone drastic
change during the freedom struggle of 19th -20th century.
An attempt was made to unify the whole of India with different regional and
linguistic identities. In the present changed scenario, many ideals of the past
had became outdated. Excessive glorification of the past have some unhealthy
fallouts.
For
many Maharashtrians Shivaji is a hero, like an incarnation of the God, who had
saved Hinduism and many of them are not in a position to digest anything said against
him. American scholar James Lane had written a book on Shivaji, titled, ‘ Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India published in India by Oxford University Press India in 2003 . In this book, the author had
referred to some joke in circulation among some people in Maharashtra which
make some derogatory remarks about Shivaji’s mother and this had created an
uproar in Maharashtra. People had vandalized ‘Bhandarkar Oriental Research
Institue, Pune’, one of the prime centers of higher learning in Western India,
just because James Lane had spent some time there during his research for the
book.
By refusing to accept new ideas, some
people seems to be living in the past. This leads to intolerance to criticism!
Inability to digest criticism of our heroes indicates that we are yet to mature
as a nation. This is a negative fallout of the aggressive nationalism that is
encouraged by the regional parties like Shiva Sena, who claims to be inheritors
of legacy of Shivaji. They politicize the issues, inflame the passion and thus
encourage the sub-nationalism. Every ideology comes with the utility as well as
expiry date.
Conclusion-
Process of nation building is a very tricky issue. Growth of Marataha
Nationalism during Medieval period was a result of many factors, Bhakti
movement being one of them. It tried to unite the Marathas cutting across the
castes. The Maratha nationalism became the dominating force in the political
and military life of India during the 18th century. However ideology
which had inspired the Marathas during Medieval period cannot be applied in the
changed scenario of modern period. Modern day Maharashtrian need to carry both
identity i.e. being Maharashtrian and being an Indian , taking care that one
does not undermine another.
Explanatory
notes-
1.
Vir
Rasa-
the literature is belived to have different ‘Rasas’ corresponding to different emotions. Vir Rasa encourages bravery. However this concept of ‘Rasa’ is not there in English
literature.
2.
Kirtan-
Group singing of devotional songs accompanied by musical instrument.
3.
Mahars.- one of the lower caste in Maharashtra.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was born in the same caste. Along with his followers he
converted to Buddhism.
4.
Dhangar-
One of the nomadic community of Maharashtra, whose traditional profession was
rearing of cattle.
5.
Peshwa- Literary Prime minister. Though the post was not very
important during the period of Shivaji, but later it became very important post
in the Maratha confederation, overshadowing the Maratha King called
‘Chatrapati’.
6.
Vithoba-
The origin of this God is shrouded in the mist of past. But when Bhakti
movement spread in Maharashtra during medieval period, Vithoba became very
popular. His temple is at a place called Phandarpur. It emerged as the most
important pilgrimage center.
References-
1.
Yardi M.R., ‘The Jnaneshwari’, Bharatiya
Vidya Bhavan, Pune.
2.
Bahikar and Bhalerao, ‘Warkari Sampradaya: Udaya ani Vikas’,
Vinus Prkashan, Pune, 1998.(Marathi)
3.
Pangarkar L.R. ‘Jay Jay Raguvir Samarath’ Keshav Dhavle, Mumbai, 2003. (Marathi)
4.
Parlikar Sacchidanand, ‘Loknayak Samarth Ramdas’, Lokbharati,
Allahabad,2002. (Hindi)
5.
Deshpande A.N. ‘Prachin Marathi Vangmayacha Itihas’ (History of ancient Marathi
literature), Part-II, Part-V, Vinus Prkashan, Pune (Marathi)
6.
Sakhre Nanamaharaj, ‘Sarth sri Gyaneshwari’, Sarathi Prakashan, Pune, 2001.
7.
Gosawi R.R., ‘Samarth ani Samarth Sampradya’, Vinus Publication, Pune, 1981.
(Marathi).
8.
Deshmukh Bhagavant, ‘Eknath Vangmaya Darshan’, Sahitya Academy, New Delhi,
2003.(Marathi)
9.
Pendse S.D. ‘Rajguru Samarth Ramdas’, Continental Publishers, Pune, 2003.
(Marathi)
10.
Pendse S.D. ‘Gyandev ani Namdev’, Continental Publishers, Pune, 1998. (Marathi)
Submitted
By- Dr. Ravi
Khangai, Asst. Prof.,
Department of History, Ambedkar College, Fatikroy,
Dist- North Tripura,Tripura-799290
E mail-
ravikhangai@gmail.com
M- 9402168854,
9862799912.
Bio-data
Working as Assistant
Professor (History), at Ambedkar College, Fatikroy, North Tripura,
Tripura-799290. Since April 2008.
Graduation from Punjab University, Chandigarh,
M.A., Ph.D. and B.Ed from Jiwaji university, Gwalior (M.P.).
Ph.D. topic, ‘Bhakti
Movement of Maharashtra’
Publication-04,
Accepted for publication-07.
well written kudos !!!!
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