Monday 2 July 2012

Neo-Viashnavism and Social harmony in Assam.


 Neo-Viashnavism and Social harmony in Assam.

Points covered-
1.      Concept of Bhakti
2.      Medieval Bhakti Movement.
3.      Sankardeva and Neo Viashnavism in Assam.
4.      Practices of Neo-Viashnavism.
5.      Neo-Vaishnavism and unification of different races.
6.      Neo-Vaishnavism and Caste system.
7.      Neo-Vaishnavism and Women.
8.      Limitations of the Neo-Viashnavism.
9.      How far the message of Sankardeva is relevant today?



         Bhakti, i.e. devotion to God is inherent in the growth of every religion, though we may call it by different names, like Sufis in Islam calls it ‘Tassawuf’.  When human mind fails to solve the intricacies of life, we turn to God, either to help us in our mundane affairs or to find solace.
        Like any other religion, the feeling of devotion is prevalent in Indian religious tradition since antiquity. But ‘Bhakti’ or devotion as a means of salvation had assumed special significance in the medieval period of the Indian History. It had brought many changes in the socio-religious life of the Indian people and so it is termed as ‘Bhakti Movement’.
        When we use the term ‘Bhakti’ movement in general, we should be also conscious that it was neither a homogeneous nor unified movement having same philosophy and practices all over the country, but there were many variations in it and, even at a time contradictions. Yet, by and large they had contributed towards reducing the discrimination purported towards the lower caste, improved the position of women and encouraged literary and creative activities.
          The ‘Bhakti’ movement had engulfed almost whole of India during the medieval period and also reached Assam with Sankardeva in the 15th century. It gradually gathered the strength and became an important factor in the socio-cultural changes in Assam. Main focus of the Bhakti was religion, but one aspect of human life has a spill-over effect on the other aspect, so we cannot entirely separate religious and social life. By trying to create relatively harmonious individuals, the Bhakti saints had contributed towards creating a relatively harmonious society. Having a perfectly harmonious society is probably a utopian dream. But after all it is a dreamer who dares to challenge the stereotype and initiate reforms. Without the dream of Martin Luther King, the condition of the Blacks probably would have not been as good as it is today and without Mahatma Gandhi, there would have been more bloodshed in the world. Bhakti saints were also such dreamer-visionary, who profoundly influenced the socio-religious practices of the Medieval India including Assam. This paper is an attempt of analyzing the contribution of one such dreamer-visionary, Sankardeva towards Assamese society as it stands today.
       Sankardeva and Neo-Viashnavism- Sankardeva was born in the middle of the 15th century and his father was a landlord called ‘Bhuyas’ and belonged to the ‘Kayastha’ caste.
      Sankardeva showed the qualities of genius since his childhood. But it was demise of his wife that made him introspective and he became more inclined towards God. It is an irony that a man turns to God when he goes through suffering in his personal life. It may be that when God selects someone to shower his bounty, he himself snatches away those things from his devotees which are likely to create attachments with the material world. Tukaram, the 17th century Maharashtrain saint says,
             ‘Bail meli mukt zali/deve maya sodvili’ (Marathi) 1   
{My wife had died and got liberation and God had made me also free from ‘Maya’ (illusion).} (Translation by author)
     So when material possession and the people who create bound with the world had gone we feel increasingly drawn towards God.
      Sankardeva’s first wife had died and after that he went for a long pilgrimage. According to ‘Katha Guru Carita’2, he visited important places of pilgrimage spread across the country. During his tour he was influenced by the ongoing wave of the ‘Bhakti’ movement throughout the length and breadth of the country. After coming back he started preaching worship of Narayana (Vishnu) and established ‘Satras’ (places of prayer) at different places. His disciples Madhavadeva also played an important role in the spread of Viashnavism in Assam.
      Viashnavism forms the major part of ‘Bhakti’ movement of the mediaeval period. Worship of Vishnu was prevalent in Assam earlier also, but Viashnavism that was introduced by Sankardeva brought in the wake, lot of churning in the society and affected almost all aspect of life in Assam; Social, cultural and political. So, this came to be known as Neo- Viashnavism.
Practices of Neo-Viashnavism-The rituals of Neo-Viashnavism are centered around ‘Satra’, the prayer house. The word had originated from the Sanskrit word ‘Sattra‘, which means a sacrifice lasting from a few days to a year or more.3
     ‘Satra’ is a complex, which is the centre of religious activity of Neo-Viashnavism. It consists of main prayer hall in which a religious scripture is kept. This is called ‘Kirtan Ghar’. ‘Kirtan Ghar’ does not have an idol. Only religious scripture like ‘Dasama4 of Sankardeva is kept in the ‘Kirtan Ghar’.
     There are four important scriptures of Neo-Vaishnavism.  ‘Dasama’ (a commentary on the tenth chapter of Bhagavata) and ‘Kirtana-ghosa’ of Sankardeva and ‘Nama-ghosa’ and ‘Bhakti-ratnavali’ of Madhavadeva.
       Some of the ‘Satras’ are having idols, which are kept in a separate room adjutants to the ‘Kirtan Ghar’. Surrounding to this ‘Kirtan Ghar’ is row of rooms in which the people who had devoted themselves to the service of the ‘Satra’ stays. These are celibate and called ‘Kavaliya’.
       Women are allowed in the ‘Satra’ during daytime only. They are not allowed to become ‘Kavaliya’ i.e. monk.
     Sankardeva preached ‘Dasya-Bhakti’ in Assam. In ‘Dasya-Bhakti’, the relation between God and the devotee is like master and the servant.
Neo-Viashnavism and caste system- Caste system is one of the most discriminatory practices and had done a lot of harm to the Indian society. One bold act that Sankardeva had initiated was that he appointed some non-Brahmins also as head of the some of the ‘Satras’ and he did not seem to have encountered opposition to this.
      Assam, being on the border of the ‘Aryavarta’, the influence and rigidity of the caste system is relatively on the lesser side. ‘Bhakti’ saints in many other parts of the country had not shown similar courage like Sankardeva. Even many of them showered undue praise on the Brahmins, almost bordering on the servility. Bhakti saints in general had a very high opinion about the Brahmins, Tulsidasa, whose ‘Ramchritmanasa’ have a profound influence on the North India says,
            “Pujiya Bipra Shil Guna Hina,
            Shudra na Guna Gyan Pravina”  (Hindi)
                               (Ramcharitmanas, Aryankand)
(A Brahmin without character and qualities should be worshipped, but not a Shudra with all the good qualities and knowledge) (Translation by author).
    However, In the domain of religion, the Bhakti saints rejected the discrimination based on the castes, like Madhabdeva says,
“The impurest of all castes attains salvation,
With but the utterance of lord Rama’s name.”5
     This is very similar to what Ramananda preached in the North India,
Jat Pat na Puche Koi
Hari Ko Bhaje so Hari Ka Hoi” (Hindi)
(Nobody should inquire about the caste, Anyone who worship Hari, will be accepted by Hari)(Translation by author)
     However Bhakti sants did not systematically attempted to do away with the discrimination practiced in the society. This attitude of giving equality to the lower caste in Bhakti and treating them as inferior in social practices does not go down well with the rational mind. This undue importance given to the person born as a Brahmin and discrimination against the lower castes is one of the important causes of the lower castes walking away from the fold of Hinduism and embracing Buddhism, Islam and Christianity throughout the Indian history.
     With due respect to the genius of the many Bhakti saints, I feel that many of them were a half-hearted or confused reformers. They were pained at the discrimination but they could not rise above the prevailing social practices and assert equality of all. It is also difficult for the privileged section of the society to introduce the radical changes which may challenge their own privileged position. Many luminaries of the Bhakti movement like Gyneshwara and Tulsidasa were born in the Brahmin family and could not imagine a society without a regulating mechanism of ‘Chaturvarna’ system. Being themselves Brahmins, they were probably also reluctant to let the privileges go from the hands of the Brahmins. In comparison Buddha appears to be more courageous, who out rightly rejected the caste system. Similar courageous spirit we also find in Kabir. However it may be mentioned that Buddha and Kabir, both were non-Brahmins.
      Sankardeva, being born in the low caste ‘Kayastha’and working away from the centers of orthodox Brahmanism like Kashi was relatively bolder than his counterpart in other parts of the country. He did not show servility towards the Brahmins like Tulsidasa, on the other hand as already referred; he appointed non-Brahmins also as head of the Satras. But at the same time it may also be mentioned that he also did not initiate any radical reforms in the social practices of the Hindu society of Assam. That was not his basic motive. His main focus was to preach the ‘Bhakti’ of Narayana. Other things came as a complimentary. Unusual domination of the Brahmins, their superiority based on the birth continued. In ‘Satras’ higher and lower castes mingled together, but once they stepped out, the old way of life continued. This duality of practicing semblance of equality during prayer and continuation of the discrimination after it is one of the glaring lacunas in the ‘Bhakti’ movement. This is true of the Bhakti movement not only in Assam but in other parts of the country as well. Rather it was more glaring in the other parts of the country.
           The caste system had taken such a hold of Hindu psyche for centuries together that the attempts of reformers starting from Buddha to B.R. Ambedkar had made a very little dent in it. Bhakti saints in general had also refrained from any attempt of demolishing it. Yet they must be given credit that they contributed towards reducing the intensity of discrimination towards lower castes. Gyaneshwara, who, like Tulsidasa had a very high opinion about the Brahmins also, says that,
Bhakti ga ath sare, Jati aprman’  ---(Marathi)(Gyneshwari Ch.IX)
(Devotion is everything and castes are irreverent) (Translation by author.)
      Sankardeva is even bolder to say in his ‘Dasama
“A Chandala who remembers God with heart and soul is superior to a Brahmin observing religious vow”     
       It is also possible that even though the Bhakti saints wanted to eradicate the discrimination based on the birth, they were cautious that they should not make the powerful Brahmin lobby hostile. We see in case of Sankardeva, he encountered the hostility of the Brahmins and the Brahmins taking advantage of their proximity to the kings instigated the royalty and Sankardeva and his disciples had to suffer. He was compelled to leave the Ahom kingdom and seek shelter in Koc kingdom. His son-in-law was executed and Madhabdeva was imprisoned. If this was a situation in Assam, which was relatively new in the fold of Brahminism and was surrounded by the Non-Aryan,  Non-Brahminical tribes, one can imagine the influence that the Brahmins might have had in other parts of the country, where the orthodox Brahaminism had taken deeper roots. Eknatha, the 16th century Maharashtrian Sant had written a Marathi commentary on the eleventh chapter of the Bahgavata. For this crime he was censored and had to travel to Kashi to explain his position. His own son, who was a Sanskrit Pundit, also rebelled against him. While contemporizing the historical events, the prevailing situations of that time should also be kept in the mind.  
     The network of the ‘Satras’ and ‘Namghars’ spread in the Brahmaputra valley. ‘Namghar’ is a place of Worship in village similar to ‘Satra’ but on a smaller scale. The population belonging to different tribes and communities found a common place to come together and satisfy their spiritual thrust. Out of these gatherings the common identity as Vaishnavas began to develop. Religious practices are one of the important unifying factors. The attempts of neo-Vaishnavism to bring the different tribes together is obvious from the sayings of Madhavdeva,
“By uttering O Rama,
One attains salvation including
The Miris, the Ahoms and the Kacharis.”6
       The ‘Neo-Vaishanvism’ had also given freedom to the people from the tyranny of the Brahmin priest and complicated, costly rituals and also from the heinous practices of the prevailing ‘Shakta’ cult.  
.    Coming to ‘Satra’ or ‘Namghar’ and singing the praise of God Narayana became new rituals in Assam. These rituals were simpler and were accessible to everyone in comparisons to the complicated and costly rituals of the ‘Shakta’ and orthodox Brahmins.
Neo-Vaishnavism and Women- There cannot be social harmony in a society where half of the population is discriminated against. The women had been always at the receiving end in the male dominated society. Men thought about their own emancipation and looked upon women as distraction from the spiritual path. It is always easy to externalize the problem and blame someone. One who is not strong enough to protest generally becomes scapegoat. Sankardeva like many other Bhakti saints also discriminated against the women. In the ‘Neo-Viashnavism’ women are not allowed to enter in the main prayer hall i.e. ‘Kirtan Ghar’. They cannot become ‘Kavaliya’ i.e. monk. Sankardeva says,
    “The dire illusions created by women-the most hideous of all illusions”7
         Bhakti Movement and Hinduism in general do not treat women equally. Probably they overemphasized the sexual aspect of women, which possibly distract the men and strengthens the bonds with this world. Religion generally tries to break us away from the world.
     In comparison to Bhakti saints, Buddha was more liberal towards women. Though he initially hesitated, but later accepted women as Buddhist ‘Bhikuni’(women monk) in the Buddhist ‘Sangha’. However this proved disastrous. Young unmarried boys and girls staying together in the ‘Sangha’ (monastery) led to moral degradation and subsequent decline of Buddhism. But purely from the humanistic perspective, barring half of the population for the sake of the other half is not justified. But probably this experiment of Buddha and tantric practices of ‘Shaktas’ involving women had contributed towards shaping this attitude of the Bhakti saints towards women. They thought it is better for the men to maintain safe distance from the women. Nevertheless, the fact remains that no alternative method like having a separate dwelling quarters for the women monks or allowing them to  enter in the ‘Kirtan Ghar’ during a specific period exclusively kept for the women was not thought about.
          However the women did come to the ‘Satras’ during day time. Allowing the women to become monk is also fraught with the danger. As monks had to travel, there was always fear of violence against the women. One can also imagine the condition nearly 500 years before, when the life was relatively unsafe. The number of women coming forward to participate in the rituals of Satra must be considerably on the lower side.
           In spite of this discrimination, Kanaklata , the grand daughter in law of Sankardeva played an important role in managing the ‘Satras’. Women in other parts of the country got avenues through the medium of the ‘Bhakti Movement’ to give vent to their creativity and satisfy their spiritual thirst. But in my reading so far, I have not come across the name of any women Bhakti poetess of Assam.      
         Neo-Vaishnavism did not advocate the life of celibacy. Shankardeva himself married twice. Though his disciple, Madhavadeva, who played an important role in the spread of Neo-Vaishnavism was a celibate. But he also did not encourage others to remain unmarried.

Limitations of Neo-Viashnavism-
     Hinduism is not based on one particular scripture and do not subscribe to any rigid ideology and practices. There are many variations. The process of assimilation of the different ideas and practices is a continuous process. This process does have advantage and disadvantages both. Advantage is that in this process of assimilation and churning whatever is best will survive with the progress of civilization. It can also satisfy the people who had diverse orientations. When we all are so different from each others, how one ideology can satisfy everybody? At the same time many times many undesirable practices gets assimilated and the degeneration sets in.
        The history of Hinduism is a very big Puzzle as it is a religion which had grown out of the churning of the centuries. It accommodates not only diverse but contradictory views as well. It was through this process of retrospection and Introspection that our philosophers reached a conclusion that,
     “Ekam Sat Vipra Bahudha Vadanati
(Truth i.e. God is only one but the learned call it by the different names)
  However the Neo-Vaishnavism did not propagate these ideas, which have the potential to unite the divergent view and practices. Sankardeva’s standpoint seems to be rigid as he rejects the worship of any Gods other than Narayana. Madhavadeva, who became the head of the Neo-Vaishnavism after Sankardeva says in his ‘Nama Ghosha’, which is a collection of his devotional poetry, says,
“Those vile and foolish person who try
To compare Thee, Krsna
The crowned head of all Gods, with other Gods,
Suffer in hell”8
        Probably it was the prevailing heinous practices and superstitious of the ‘Tantrism’ and ‘Shakta’ that prevailed in Assam before the spread of Viashnavism that Sankardeva had taken extra care to keep his newly founded creed pure and away from the degraded practices. That is the reason that he gave supreme place to only one God, Narayana and looked down upon the worship of any other God. Madhavdeva even expelled one of his disciples for worshiping Kali.    
       But due to this rigidity the appeals of Neo-Viashnavism had remained confined to the plain people of Brahmaputra Valley and could not spread in the hilly areas of the North East India. The geographical factors and other racial and socio-cultural differences further resisted the attempt of unification and assimilation.
      Sankardeva did have some disciples among the tribal and there was a Muslim disciple as well. Though these examples are often quoted in support of the exercise of the nation building. The fact nevertheless remains that Neo- Viashnavism have failed to bring any fundamental changes in the socio-cultural and religious practices of the Hill people in  the North East. It remained mainly confined to the plains of Brahmaputra valley. Tribes by and large continued to practice their animism with some influence of superstitious Tantrik practices. In the plains also, the tribal and non tribal differences continued as usual. Even on the plain people also the influence appears to be very thin as obvious by the popularity of ‘Kamkhya’ the Shakta goddess and continuation of the worship of numerous other Gods by the Hindu population of Assam. 
     During the British period of the Indian History the gulf between the Hill and plain people in the North East of India has widened further as British restricted the movement between plains and hills of the North East. It suited them that the hill people should not be influenced by the ongoing anti-British movement for independence. Conversation of the tribes to Christianity further increased the gulf between the hill and plain people.
       In post Independence period, political and economic dimensions were further added to the socio-cultural differences. Now we see the tribes of the North-East of India underlining their separate identify vis-à-vis that of the non tribals. Whatever the influence of the Hinduism they might have had in the past; there is a tendency to reject that. They try to either go back to their pre-Neo-Viashnavism, pre-Hinduism practices or try to become westernized in their manners and dress, to assert their separate identity.
       This gulf between Tribal and Non-Tribal many times culminates into the violent conflicts as we see Bodos, Dimasas ,Karbis and other tribes of Assam taking up arms against the domination of the non-tribal and also fighting among themselves. Different Religious practices and beliefs by itself do not give rise to the violence but it does contribute in the process of polarization and more so, in a country like India, where inter-faith dialogue is missing.  
      Bhakti literature in general is dominated by the fatalist and escapist tendencies. It proclaims that everything happens according to the will of the God and human endeavor are futile. These tendencies are having advantage and disadvantage both. Advantage is that it helps us to cope up with the drudgery of the life. But the meek submission also adversely affects the industrious spirit. Bhakti movement had not attempted to create rational thinking and the religion of the masses continued to be the religion of superstitious beliefs, only the rituals had become simpler and less violent due to the influence of Neo-Vaishnavism.  
       The simple, innocent and unquestionable faith in God Narayana that Neo-Viashnavism had tried to popularize may not appeal to the modern rational mind. In their attempt to popularize Bhakti, the Saints had many times gone really overboard. Like there is a story of Ajamil, the Brahmin in the Bhagavata. The story had also found its place in the ‘Bhakti Ratnavali’ of Madhabdeva (Ch.5). As the story goes, the Brahmin Ajamil had committed all the possible sins during his life. At the time of his death he called out to his son ‘Narayana, Narayana’ as his son was named Narayana. The lord Narayana heard this and came running and emancipated him. Does this indicate that only by mechanical repetition of the name of the God without any devotional feelings is enough? There are many things like this in Bhakti literature which may provide temporary solace to the person who had committed sins, but it may also percolate the idea that whatever you do good or bad does not really matter, so long you take the name of the God. The spread of this idea may encourage the people to be hypocritical, like the traditional Hindi saying goes,
Muh me Ram, Bagal me Churi
 (Name of the Rama on the lips, but dagger hidden in the armpit)
       The idea also does not stand the scrutiny of rationality.
     
How far the message is relevant today?
       Bhakti movement of Assam and in other parts of the country as well tried reduce discrimination and injustice done to lower caste on the name of religion. Yet the injustice and discrimination continues even today. They tried to purify religion, yet the superstitious and degenerating practices still continues. Shall we conclude that their efforts had been all wasted?
       Probably there cannot be a simple answer ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ to this question. The progress of civilization and development of philosophy and socio-cultural changes are very slow process. It takes centuries for the mindset to change. But the beginning has to made, as Seneca, the 1st century Roman Philosopher said,
      “Knowledge will be unfolded through long successive ages. There will come a time when our descendants will be amazed that we did not knew things that are so plain to them”9
             Our predecessors like Shankardeva, Gyneshwara, Kabir, Vivekananda and Mahtma Gandhi had taken couple of steps towards building up of a civilization and this seminar is also a small step towards it. This is small step as we progress from material civilization to intellectual civilization, from intellectual to Philosophical and from Philosophical to spiritual civilization.
     The socio-cultural situation in Assam and in India would have been worse than today without the efforts of the Bhakti saints of making religion relatively simple. The division and conflict that we see around us would have been probably sharper without them.
      By reducing the complications within the individuals and purifying the life of the individuals, Bhakti saints had tried to create harmonious individuals. Harmonious individuals makes Harmonious and peaceful society. The disharmony and conflict that we witness around us are but extensions of the disharmony and conflict that we carry within us. If the inside is purged, the outside will become pure as well.
       In a pluralist society like India, inclusion of religion in school and college curriculum have its own difficulties. But we are creating the generations whose spiritual aspect remains underdeveloped. The crises of values and rampant corruption is probably fall out of this. What qualities the Bhakti saints had tried to inculcate among the devotees is obvious from the following verse of ‘Uddhava Gita’ which is a part of the Bhagavata.
       “Pure, genial by nature, sweet and a source of imparting holiness to men, the sage-resembling water-purifies all, being seen, touched and praised by them” (Uddhava Gita, Ch.II)
       Instead of bringing out any radical social reforms the practicing ethical behavior and moral values were more important to the Bhakti Saints.
      In a pluralist society and in the time of the rapid globalization, one particular creed may not satisfy the spiritual need of the humanity. Any attempt of doing that is bound to fail and give rise to the conflict. But through interfaith dialogue we should try to reach what Dalai Lama calls the ‘core’ of the religious tradition i.e. love and compassion.
     




             

Specific References-
1.      Vinoba Bhave ‘Tukaramchi Bajane’ (Marathi), (‘Devotional songs of Tukaram’) (Devotional songs are known as ‘Bhajan’ in Marathi and Hindi as well.)
2.      An 18th century important work about the Neo-Vaishnavism in Assam.
3.      Dr. Sarma S.N. ‘The Neo-Vaisnavite Movement and the Satra institution of Assam’, Lawyer’s Book Stall, Panbazar, Guwahati, 1999, P.143.
4.       Commentary of Sankardeva on the 10th Chapter of the ‘Bhagvata’.
5.      Pathak Pranabananda, ‘Nama Ghosa’ Promilla &Co. Publishers, New Delhi, 2005. P.125.
6.      Pathak Pranabananda, ‘Nama Ghosa.’ Promilla &Co. Publishers, New Delhi, 2005. P.131.
7.      Devgoswami Ranjit Kumar(Ed.), ‘Essays on Sankardeva’ LBS publication,Guwahati,2005. P.50
8.      Pathak Pranabananda, ‘Nama Ghosa.’ Promilla &Co. Publishers, New Delhi, 2005. P.23.
9.      Times of India, Delhi Edition, May 3,2004.


General References-
 1. Vinoba Bhave ‘Gyandevachi Bajane’ (Marathi), (‘Devotional songs of Gyandeva’)
2. Tulsidasa ‘Ramcharitmanas’(Hindi), Gita Press, Gorakhpur.
        3. Swami Madhavananda, ‘Uddhava Gita’, Advaita Ashrama, Kolkata, 2003.
4. A.N. Deshpande, ‘Prachin Marathi Wangmayacha Itihas’ (Marathi) (History of ancient Marathi literature)
5. Maheswar Neog ‘Sankardeva and His Times’, LBS publication,Guwahati,2008.
10.  Sir Edward Gait, ‘A history of Assam’ Bina Library, Guwahati, 2008.
11.  S.L. Baruah‘A Comprehensive History of Assam’ Munshiram Manoharlal,2007.
12.  The Dalai Lama, ‘The power of compassion’, HarperCollins,2001.
13.  Pathak Pranabananda, ‘Bhakti Ratnavali.’ Promilla &Co. Publishers, New Delhi, 2009.


                                                 




 Submitted By-
                                                       Dr. Ravi Khangai
                                                                        Asst. Prof. & HOD                                                                                                                    
                                                                 Department of History
                                                         Ambedkar College, Fatikroy
                                                          Dist- North Tripura-799290
                                                 E Mailravikhangai@gmail.com
                                                                    Ph- 9402168854                                                         

   
      

BHAKTI MOVEMENT OF MAHARASHTRA AND MARATHA NATIONALISM


BHAKTI MOVEMENT OF MAHARASHTRA AND MARATHA NATIONALISM
                          (Nationalism, Nation building and the lives of Saints)
Key words- identity, geographical, medieval, Bhakti, nationalism, blending, caste.
Abstract-      Geographically located at the meeting point of the North India and South India, the people of Maharashtra have their own distinct identity. Medieval Bhakti movement had played an important role in giving shape to this distinct identity to Marathi speaking people.
     Gyaneshwara (13th century) who is considered as a pioneer of Medieval Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra says,
“What should I say in praise of Marathi, it is sweeter than the nectar”
    With the progress of the Bhakti Movement from 13th century to 17th century, the pride of Marathi is also begun to blend with the pride of being Hindu. This ultimately culminated into the ideology of ‘Maharashtra Dharma’ of Ramadasa, who is considered as the guru of Shivaji, the founder of Maratha kingdom, which later turned into an empire. Shivaji called his kingdom as ‘Swarjya’ (our own kingdom). And ‘Sriche Rajya’(God’s Kingdom)
      The traces of blending of the spirituality with the temporal progress is visible in the composition of the Gynaeshwara, Eknath and Tukaram. However with Ramdasa it achieved  more clear assertion .
     The proposed paper is an attempt to trace this growth of aggressive assertion of ‘Maratha identity’ through the writings of the Bhakti saints from Gyaneshwara to Ramdasa.  This aggressive assertion of Maratha identity is cashed upon by many political parties like Shiv Sena and BJP and pressure groups like RSS and Maratha Mahasangha.. One have to just go around in the towns of Maharashtra and see how the legacy of Ramdasa and Shivaji is used to organize and channelize the energy of the youth. However, it has good and bad effect both! It does inculcate good values and respect for tradition, but sometimes it spirals into fanaticism leading to the incidents like vandalism of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Spread of Bhakti movement in Maharashtra and growth of Maratha Nationalism during medieval period is an intricate issue. Religion was never as isolated matter but was interconnected with political, socio-economic and cultural conditions. In this context, this paper will explore the following issues involved;
1.      Geographical background of Maharashtra.
2.      Coming of Bhakti Movement.
3.      Assertion of Marathi pride.
4.      Blending of language and religion.
5.      Articulation of injustice.
6.      Inspiring dream.
7.      Unification of the Marathas.
8.      Maratha Nationalism, blending of religion and politics.
9.      Hindu unity, but not against Islam.
10.  Maratha Nationalism, a tricky legacy.

1.Geographical background of Maharashtra- Maharashtra is divided into many distinct geographical units like the ranges of Satpura and Sahyandri mountains in Western Maharashtra, the coastal belt of Konkan and Table land of Vidarbha.
      Geographical features of any region plays an important role in shaping the character of the people and subsequently it’s history. Maharashtra is not blessed with ample quantity of plain fertile land and lot of land is mountainous and barren. Historically, the life of the people of Maharashtra was full of struggle for survival. The struggle becoming the part of daily life, the general character traits of an average Maharashtrian shows qualities like tenacity, simplicity and frugality.
      Geographical features also helped the Maharashtrians to resist the invasions. The rule of Muslim kingdoms started in Maharashtra in the 14th century, however the administrative machinery of the Sulatans of Bijapur and Ahmadnagar and Mughals did not penetrate deeper in the villages of the Maharashtra. The sultans of the Deccan had to rule with the help of the local Maratha chief. Thus the spirit of independence always remained alive among the Maharashtrians.
     These mountains were very effectively used by Shivaji and his followers to protect the small Maratha kingdom against the aggression of the mighty Mughals.
2.Coming of Bhakti Movement- Medieval Bhakti movement, which had brought many changes in the lives of the Hindus during medieval period also had a profound effect on the lives of the Maharashtrian people.  Tracing the root of Bhakti movement is difficult, but in Maharashtra, Gyaneshwara (13th -14th century) is considered as a pioneer of the medieval Bhakti movement. He made Marathi commentary on the Bhagavad Gita known as Gyaneshwari and gave a solid philosophical foundation to the movement in Maharashtra. Bhakti saints did not advise the people to renounce the world, but tried to make synthesis between spiritual and temporal progress. Gyaneshawara says,
Jayche Ahik dhad  Nahi, Tayache paratr pushi kai”(Pendse p.76)
(If somebody’s temporal progress is not good, what to say about his spiritual progress) Gyneshwara’s making commentary on ‘ Bhagavad Gita’ itself symbolizes that he wanted to give message of achieving proper synthesis between spiritual and temporal progress. In Bhagavad Gita we find messages that are suitable to the people of different temperament. The author of Bhagavad Gita had  tried to achieve synthesis between Karma(action), Gyan(wisdom) and Bhakti(devotion). Opening of spiritual-philosophical treasure of Bhagavad Gita to the common Marathi speaking population was a revolutionary step. It had threatened the exclusive privilege of those who kept the spiritual knowledge confined to the boundaries of Sanskrit. In terms of poetic beauty, flight of imagination and philosophical depth, Gyneshwari stands unparallel in Marathi literature. Urging Arjuna to fight against the tyranny, Krishna in Gyaneshwari says,
“Sandi he murkhpan, uthi ghe dhanushbans,sangrami he kavan karunya tuze” (Sakhre p.44)
(Discard this foolishness, pick up bow and arrow. How a kindness have generated in your heart at this time when you are called upon to fight the war!)
Gyaneshwari is full of ‘Vir rasa’ 1and urges the people into righteous action, action with the right consciousness and for the right purpose.
By setting trend of writing in Marathi, Gyneshwara inspired the generations of saints to write commentaries on Sanskrit scriptures. Following his footsteps, Eknatha (1533-1599 A.D.) wrote Marathi commentary on the eleventh chapter of Bhagavata and also ‘Bhavartha Ramayana’, the transcreation of the story of brave Rama.  The narration is full of description of bravery of Rama, Lakshmana and Hanumana. During the narration, Ekanatha repeatedly urges the people to unite for the purpose of liberating Gods from the tyranny of Ravana. Here we see the symbolism of using epical narration to describe the contemporary situations. Eknatha worked during the period of Muslim rule, when life and religion of the Hindus was not safe. There were incidents of destruction of temples and breaking of idols. Through symbolism Ekanatha urges the people to unite and fight against the injustice and liberate the Gods,
Eknatha repeatedly uses a refrain in ‘Bhavartha Ramayana’, ‘Todavaya devachi Bandhvadi, Ubharavaya Ramrajychi Gudhi’  which means ‘to liberate the Gods and establish the just kingdom of Rama.’
Later Ramdasa(1608-1681 A.D.),  says that one should maintain proper balance between worldly life and spiritual progress. He writes,
“Adhi pranpanch karava netka, mag sadave parmarth viveka” (Deshpande, Part-V, p.440)
(One should do householder’s duty with prudence and then one can achieve spiritual progress)
3.Assertion of Marathi pride.-
We find confident assertion of the pride of Marathi language in the composition of Gyaneshwara. He writes,
“I shall choose such beautiful diction of local language(Marathi) that it will easily win by its sweetness, a wager with nectar. Its melodious words will outshine musical notes and in their presence even fragrance will loose its sweetness” (Yardi p.94)
The articulation of pride of Marathi language, that we see in the composition of Gyneshwara, finds more aggressive assertion in the writings of Bhakti saints that followed. Eknatah (16th century) says,
“Sanskrit vani deve keli, Prakrit kay chorapasun ali” (Bahirat and Bhalerao, p.198).
(If Sanskrit is made by Gods. Then did Marathi sprang from the thieves?)
By making Marathi as a language of compositions, the Bhakti saints had increased its prestige. It had provoked literary creativity across the caste and gender and common masses started articulating their grievances and aspirations.  Kirtans2 and singing of devotional songs in Marathi contributed towards creating more cohesive Mahartashtrian society.
4.Blending of language and religion-After the age of Gyaneshwara(13th -14th century), rule of Muslim sultans was established over Maharashtra. Muslims were the favored children of the state. They were mostly soldiers and government servants. Most of them were from outside like; Arabs, Turk, Irani, Afgani and converted Indian Muslims from north India. They spoke different languages and not Marathi. As the masses of Maharashtra, who were mostly Hindus, spoke Marathi and the ruling classes spoke different languages, it further intensified the dichotomy between the ruling and the ruled. No wonder that the pride of Marathi language and pride of being Hindu got blended together and a new connotation came into existence called, ‘Maharashtra Dharma’, which literary means ‘religion of the Maharashtrians.’
5.Articulation of injustice-   As the followers of Islam were eager to spread to Islam and many Muslim rulers making it a state practice, a need was felt to unite against the tyranny. We find articulation of this need in the writings of Ramdasa, who says,
“Maratha tituka melvava, Apula Maharashtra Dharma vadvava”  (Deshpande, Part II, p.138)
(All the Marathas should unite and spread the Maharashtra Dharma)
The Hindus of Maharashtra, whose sentiments were wounded due to religious persecution, could not open their mouth out of fear of the state. However as we move from 15th century to 17th century, the situation had undergone change. Ramdasa is more fearless in narrating the atrocities committed by the invading armies of the sultans. He writes,
“They do not allow us to open our mouth. If we dare to speak, they will cut off out tongues. They cut off our hands and feet, ears and noses and torture us in many ways”(Pangarkar p.161)
 The articulation of the incidents of invading armies dishonoring and carrying away of women also found place in the writings of Ramdasa, he writes,
“Many Gujjar women and Brahmin women were polluted (raped)
Many of them were deported to another country and sold.
Many of them died due to torture”(Parlikar p.41)  
During Medieval period, there were attempts of spreading Islam and the Hindus faced lot of persecution. Their  temples were destroyed and restrictions were imposed on their religious practices.  During the same period Bhakti movement was also spreading across the country. However, by and large the Bhakti saints had maintained sullen aloofness and remained silent about the atrocities committed against the Hindus. But at least two Bhakti saints of Maharashtra i.e. Eknatah and Ramdasa had narrated the atrocities committed against the Hindus. Ramdasa feels sad that many places of Hindu worship are now converted into mosque and Dargas,
“Earlier there were many temples. Now the rulers are Muslims. There is a celebration of ‘Urs’ at many places now and Muslims glorifies their own saints”(Gosawi p.19)
       Many times Muslim rulers and soldiers indulged in plunder. They demolished temples; idols were broken and thrown away. Ramdasa narrates,
“One God is broken by a tyrant. Another one was thrown in the water. And the other one was trampled upon by them”( Gosawi p.19)
     Due to different pressures some of the Hindus were converting to Islam. This pained Ramdasa and he says,
“Brahmins have lost their intellect. They had also discarded their sacred duties. Many of them had started worshipping ‘Pirs’ and many of them are embarrassing Islam”(Pangarkar p.553)
As there were incidents of forcible conversion to Islam, Eknatha criticizes that. He says,
“Hindus and Musalman, both were made by ‘Khuda’, by forcibly converting the Hindus, you are going against the will of God” (Deshmukh, p.124)
6.Inspiring dream-   No wonder that this kind of bold articulations in the writings of the Maratha saints aroused the masses to think and dream about the kingdom where their life, religion, property and women will be safe. The articulation of this dream we find again in the poem of Ramdasa titled ‘Anandvanbhuvan’ means ‘the abode of happiness’. In this poem he writes,
“The evil minded Aurangzeb has died and the Mlenchhas are killed.
The religious places which were destroyed are now rebuilt.” (Pangarkar p.585)
 However it my be mentioned here that Ramdasa died in 1681 A.D. and Aurangzeb, after 26 years  in 1707 A.D. But the dream put forward by Ramdasa was put into practice by the spirited Marathas in the 18th century, when they demolished the Mughal empire and established their domination over almost all over India. But the empire built by the Marathas and the dream of ‘Anandvanbhuvan’ of Ramdasa, were they the same? The question is difficult to answer. Life is too complex to be compartmentalized in straight answers like yes or No. Sometimes the reality is strange than the dream!
Ramdasa’s place is unique in the growth of Maratha nationalism during medieval period. He gave lesson of manliness, bravery, diplomacy and patriotism to the people of Maharashtra. He is considered as spiritual Guru of Shivaji. He put forward an ideal of Saint-soldier in front of the people. Through his writings, he tried to form the character of the youth along with good health. He built many temples of God Hanumana along with gymnasium and started giving physical training to the youth to build their physique. Similar kind of experiment of creating saint-soldiers was carried out by Guru Gobind Singh in Punjab by founding Khalsa.
7.Unification of the Marathas- Caste system is one of the important factor that had kept Hindu society divided for centuries together. About the caste system, the message given by the Bhakti saints is not homogeneous. However by and large they accepted equality in the domain of the religion. Gyaneshwara says,
“Devotion only counts and not caste” (Yardi p.236)
The same thinking reflects in the compositions of the Bhakti saints of the Maharashtra. Though the caste system was not eradicated, but it did reduce the hatred between the higher castes and the lower castes. The saints tried to percolate the idea that caste is an attribute of the body only and inside the cover of this body lays our true self, which is everywhere and inside everyone. Gyaneshwara says,
“He viswachi maze ghar, Asi vriti Jayachi sthir, Kimbahuna charachar, apan jahala” (Sakhre p.564)
(The whole universe is my home and I reside in all animate and inanimate beings)
As the hatred between the caste was reduced, the collective identify as being a Maratha overlapped the differences (may be for time being!). As a result when the Marathas spread out from the Maharashtra in the 18th century it had people cutting across the different castes starting from the Brahmins to the lower castes Mahars.3 They were collectively addressed as ‘the Marathas’. This had given some space to the talented and enterprising people from the lower caste. Malharrao Holkar, the founder of the royal dynasty of Indore was a Dhangar,4 the Sheppard by caste. But due to his capability he rose to a very high position in the Maratha confederation and was respectfully called ‘Kaka’, i.e. paternal uncle, even by the high caste Brahmin Peshwa5 i.e. prime minister of the Maratha Empire.
The Bhakti movement by embracing the people from different castes had provided platform or the people to air their grievances. Chokha Mela (13th-14th century) the lower caste saint asserts himself,
“Chokha Donga, pari Bhav nohe donga” (Deshpande p.137)
(I may be from lower caste, but my devotion is not inferior.)
8.Maratha Nationalism, blending of religion and politics - Gradually the wave of Bhakti engulfed the whole of Maharashtra from 13th to 17th century. The unity that was formed under the saffron flag of Bhakti enabled the Marathas to stand united as a nation, when their homeland was invaded by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in A.D. 1682. Marathas fought valiantly against the might of the Mughal Empire for twenty five years. They defended their independence and Aurangzeb died as a broken hearted man in Maharashtra without able to break the spirit of the Marathas. This stands in contrast with the raids of Alauddin Khilji and Malik Kafur in the 13th and 14th century, when Maharashtra was easily ran over by the invading armies. The Maharashtrian society of 17th-18th century was more cohesive, more proud of their religion and being Marathas. Apart from many other factors, the Bhakti saints had also played an important role in achieving this unity. By enriching the Marathi language, by providing the rallying points in the form of deities like Vithoba at Pahandarpur6, by popularizing Kirtana singing, the Bhakti saints unified the Marathas and created sense of belonging. Shivaji called his kingdom as ‘Swarajya’ and ‘Sri che Rajya’ which means ‘our own kingdom’ and ‘kingdom of God’. No wonder that the Shivaji’s men resisted all the temptations offered by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb and continued to fight for preserving the independence of the Maratha kingdom in spite of all odds.  
    The idea of Nationalism propagated by the Bhakti saints of Maharashtra and particularly by Ramdasa had vision limited to Maharashtra only. Ramdasa himself was aware of it. He writes,
“It is difficult to bring all the Hindus at one platform because they speak in different languages and this prevent them from freely mingling with each other”.(Pangarkar p.167)
         Later on in the 18th century, when the Marathas established their domination over vast territory in the North India, they could not adopt all India outlook. For them their ‘watan’ i.e. homeland remained Maharashtra. With orientation towards Maharashtra, the people of North India and Gujrat, where the Marathas established their domination, continued to look upon the Marathas as outsiders.   
       During Medieval Bhakti Movement of Maharashtra, Lord Vittala at Phandarpur, who is considered as a child incarnation of lord Vishnu was the main rallying point of the Hindus and Phandarpur was the main center of pilgrimage. However, Ramdasa selected Rama, the warrior incarnation of lord Vishnu as his object of veneration. He popularized the Bhakti of Rama and Hanumana and narrated their exploits in his poetic composition, ‘Ramayana’. It is believed that during the period of Shivaji, Sambhaji and Rajaram (A.D. 1630-1700), the copies of Ramdasa’s Ramayana were distributed to the forts of the Marathas and its readings were carried out.(Pangarkar p.253)
9.Hindu unity, but not against Islam-     However, the unity and aggression was only to establish the rule of justice. Ramdasa, the staunch supporter of Hindu unity also says that fighting will destroy all,
“There is only one earth, same water. O brother! Why do you fight with each other? Everybody will be destroyed due to this infighting” (Pendse p.385)
     As Hinduism believes that different mode of worship are nothing but different ways of reaching God. This philosophy also reflects in the compositions of the Bhakti saints. Ramdasa, who is critical of the forcible conversion to Islam, also makes a respectful reference to Muslim Sufis and Fakirs, he says,
“We can achieve God by becoming mendicant, idol worshippers as well as by becoming Sufi, Fakir and Kalandar” (Deshpande, Vol.V, p.283).
    The liberal and all embarrassing attitude of the Bhakti movement also touched the followers of Islam. There were some Muslims in Maharashtra like Hussain Ambarkhan, who wrote on the Hindu themes.    
10.Maratha Nationalism, a tricky legacy- Collective sense of shared history, language and culture creates an ideal for nationalism. Bhakti saints of Maharashtra created a sense of belonging and unified the Marathas cutting across the different castes. This unity was strengthened when faced with a strong enemy like the Mughals. However, the roots of caste had gone so deeper in our society that the saints had  by and large failed to find any permanent solution to this malady which plague the Hindu society. The privileged upper caste by and large maintained a sullen aloofness from the Bhakti movement. Similarly, the lower caste Shudras also could not find a comfortable space under the umbrella of Bhakti movement. Bhakti saints failed to take any radical steps against the unjustified caste discrimination. Even many times they justified it by giving undue importance to the Brahmins. The general message that the  Bhakti saints of Maharashtra gave to the lower castes that everybody is equal in the domain of religion, but when it comes to maintain social order, everybody has to do the duty assigned to his Varna. Emancipation of Shudra lies in serving upper three Varnas! For which they will be rewarded after the death of this body. This kind of justification of exploitative nature of caste system cannot be accepted by the rational mind. The lower caste Mahar Chokha Mela, who lived  in the 14th century complained against this injustice but remained within the fold of Hinduism, but Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar, who lived six centuries after him, decided to throw off the yoke and renounced Hinduism along with many of his followers. This is a proof that Maratha Nationalism had failed to unite all sections of the Maratha society permanently. Hinduism with its catholic spirit and flexibility nullifies the protest by embarrassing it. Buddha protested against the violence of the Vedic religion and followers of Vedic religion reduced his opposition by adopting Non-Violence and declaring Buddha as incarnation of Vishnu. Similarly, the protest of Bhakti movement against the orthodox Hinduism was also nullified by the Hinduism by reducing its own orthodoxy. However it must be mentioned that Bhakti movement had brought lot of changes in the practices of Hinduism.
       The strong distinct identity that the people of Maharashtra carry in their mind also sometimes take the form of aggression and intolerance towards the people belonging to other states in India. There are incidents of some attack on the Hindi speaking people in Maharashtra. However, here the economic factor also strengthens the divide. The large number of Hindi speaking people migrating to other parts of the country and snatching the jobs of the locals, leads to conflict and assertion of regional pride adds fuel to the fire.
     Concept of nationality also goes on changing. During medieval period, the idea of Maratha Nationalism had inspired and unified the generations. However, the idea of Nationality had undergone drastic change during the freedom struggle of 19th -20th century. An attempt was made to unify the whole of India with different regional and linguistic identities. In the present changed scenario, many ideals of the past had became outdated. Excessive glorification of the past have some unhealthy fallouts.
    For many Maharashtrians Shivaji is a hero, like an incarnation of the God, who had saved Hinduism and many of them are not in a position to digest anything said against him.  American scholar James Lane had written a book on Shivaji, titled, ‘ Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India published in India by Oxford University Press India in 2003 . In this book, the author had referred to some joke in circulation among some people in Maharashtra which make some derogatory remarks about Shivaji’s mother and this had created an uproar in Maharashtra. People had vandalized ‘Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institue, Pune’, one of the prime centers of higher learning in Western India, just because James Lane had spent some time there during his research for the book.
    By refusing to accept new ideas, some people seems to be living in the past. This leads to intolerance to criticism! Inability to digest criticism of our heroes indicates that we are yet to mature as a nation. This is a negative fallout of the aggressive nationalism that is encouraged by the regional parties like Shiva Sena, who claims to be inheritors of legacy of Shivaji. They politicize the issues, inflame the passion and thus encourage the sub-nationalism. Every ideology comes with the utility as well as expiry date.
Conclusion- Process of nation building is a very tricky issue. Growth of Marataha Nationalism during Medieval period was a result of many factors, Bhakti movement being one of them. It tried to unite the Marathas cutting across the castes. The Maratha nationalism became the dominating force in the political and military life of India during the 18th century. However ideology which had inspired the Marathas during Medieval period cannot be applied in the changed scenario of modern period. Modern day Maharashtrian need to carry both identity i.e. being Maharashtrian and being an Indian , taking care that one does not undermine another. 
       

   Explanatory notes
1.      Vir Rasa- the literature is belived to have different ‘Rasas’ corresponding to different emotions. Vir Rasa encourages bravery. However this concept of ‘Rasa’ is not there in English literature.
2.      Kirtan- Group singing of devotional songs accompanied by musical instrument.
3.       Mahars.- one of the lower caste in Maharashtra. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was born in the same caste. Along with his followers he converted to Buddhism.
4.       Dhangar- One of the nomadic community of Maharashtra, whose traditional profession was rearing of cattle.
5.       Peshwa- Literary Prime minister. Though the post was not very important during the period of Shivaji, but later it became very important post in the Maratha confederation, overshadowing the Maratha King called ‘Chatrapati’.
6.      Vithoba- The origin of this God is shrouded in the mist of past. But when Bhakti movement spread in Maharashtra during medieval period, Vithoba became very popular. His temple is at a place called Phandarpur. It emerged as the most important pilgrimage center. 


References-
1.      Yardi M.R., ‘The Jnaneshwari’, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Pune.   
2.      Bahikar and Bhalerao, ‘Warkari Sampradaya: Udaya ani Vikas’, Vinus Prkashan, Pune, 1998.(Marathi)
3.      Pangarkar L.R. ‘Jay Jay Raguvir Samarath’ Keshav Dhavle, Mumbai, 2003. (Marathi)
4.      Parlikar Sacchidanand, ‘Loknayak Samarth Ramdas’, Lokbharati, Allahabad,2002. (Hindi)
5.      Deshpande A.N. ‘Prachin Marathi Vangmayacha Itihas’ (History of ancient Marathi literature), Part-II, Part-V, Vinus Prkashan, Pune (Marathi)
6.      Sakhre Nanamaharaj, ‘Sarth sri Gyaneshwari’, Sarathi Prakashan, Pune, 2001.
7.      Gosawi R.R., ‘Samarth ani Samarth Sampradya’, Vinus Publication, Pune, 1981. (Marathi).
8.      Deshmukh Bhagavant, ‘Eknath Vangmaya Darshan’, Sahitya Academy, New Delhi, 2003.(Marathi)
9.      Pendse S.D. ‘Rajguru Samarth Ramdas’, Continental Publishers, Pune, 2003. (Marathi)
10.  Pendse S.D. ‘Gyandev ani Namdev’, Continental Publishers, Pune, 1998. (Marathi)
Submitted By-   Dr. Ravi Khangai, Asst. Prof.,                                                               Department of History, Ambedkar College, Fatikroy,                                                                    Dist- North Tripura,Tripura-799290
 E mail- ravikhangai@gmail.com
 M- 9402168854, 9862799912.

Bio-data
Working as Assistant Professor (History), at Ambedkar College, Fatikroy, North Tripura, Tripura-799290. Since April 2008.
 Graduation from Punjab University, Chandigarh, M.A., Ph.D. and B.Ed from Jiwaji university, Gwalior (M.P.).
Ph.D. topic, ‘Bhakti Movement of Maharashtra’
Publication-04, Accepted for publication-07.